Category:Photocatalytic CO2 conversion to HCOOH: Difference between revisions

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== Photosensitizers ==
== Photosensitizers ==
<chemform smiles="C1C2C3C=CC=CN=3[Ru]3(N4C(C5C=CC=CN=53)=CC=CC=4)3(N4C=CC=CC=4C4C=CC=CN=43)N=2C=CC=1" isreaction="" inchi="1S/3C10H8N2.Ru/c3*1-3-7-11-9(5-1)10-6-2-4-8-12-10;/h3*1-8H;" inchikey="BZSVVCFHMVMYCR-UHFFFAOYSA-N" height="200px" width="300px" float="none">
  -INDIGO-10312214132D
  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0 V3000
M  V30 BEGIN CTAB
M  V30 COUNTS 37 45 0 0 0
M  V30 BEGIN ATOM
M  V30 1 C 7.01072 -3.66709 0.0 0
M  V30 2 C 8.46567 -3.66409 0.0 0
M  V30 3 C 7.77046 -3.26885 0.0 0
M  V30 4 C 8.55261 -4.48498 0.0 0
M  V30 5 C 6.99831 -4.48834 0.0 0
M  V30 6 N 8.04613 -4.95142 0.0 0
M  V30 7 C 4.53924 -4.91621 0.0 0
M  V30 8 C 6.15138 -4.95901 0.0 0
M  V30 9 C 5.26668 -4.50978 0.0 0
M  V30 10 N 6.29691 -5.77504 0.0 0
M  V30 11 C 4.54321 -5.76102 0.0 0
M  V30 12 C 5.35996 -6.26299 0.0 0
M  V30 13 C 6.41084 -7.74028 0.0 0
M  V30 14 C 7.98196 -8.24949 0.0 0
M  V30 15 N 7.458 -7.41393 0.0 0
M  V30 16 C 7.7065 -8.97042 0.0 0
M  V30 17 C 6.31664 -8.77002 0.0 0
M  V30 18 C 7.02114 -9.25145 0.0 0
M  V30 19 C 8.64747 -8.35517 0.0 0
M  V30 20 C 10.2569 -8.37475 0.0 0
M  V30 21 N 9.22788 -7.77097 0.0 0
M  V30 22 C 10.172 -9.41607 0.0 0
M  V30 23 C 8.73807 -9.30161 0.0 0
M  V30 24 C 9.37061 -9.77608 0.0 0
M  V30 25 N 10.1295 -6.17025 0.0 0
M  V30 26 C 11.7911 -5.62804 0.0 0
M  V30 27 C 10.8612 -5.47731 0.0 0
M  V30 28 C 11.9372 -6.45321 0.0 0
M  V30 29 C 10.423 -6.76451 0.0 0
M  V30 30 C 11.2893 -6.96356 0.0 0
M  V30 31 C 9.75728 -3.84639 0.0 0
M  V30 32 C 11.3568 -3.66502 0.0 0
M  V30 33 C 10.5774 -3.33632 0.0 0
M  V30 34 C 11.4448 -4.44688 0.0 0
M  V30 35 N 9.75639 -4.75933 0.0 0
M  V30 36 C 10.7762 -4.92966 0.0 0
M  V30 37 Ru 8.40385 -6.13482 0.0 0
M  V30 END ATOM
M  V30 BEGIN BOND
M  V30 1 2 3 1
M  V30 2 2 4 2
M  V30 3 1 1 5
M  V30 4 1 2 3
M  V30 5 2 5 6
M  V30 6 1 6 4
M  V30 7 2 9 7
M  V30 8 2 10 8
M  V30 9 1 7 11
M  V30 10 1 8 9
M  V30 11 2 11 12
M  V30 12 1 12 10
M  V30 13 2 15 13
M  V30 14 2 16 14
M  V30 15 1 13 17
M  V30 16 1 14 15
M  V30 17 2 17 18
M  V30 18 1 18 16
M  V30 19 2 21 19
M  V30 20 2 22 20
M  V30 21 1 19 23
M  V30 22 1 20 21
M  V30 23 2 23 24
M  V30 24 1 24 22
M  V30 25 2 27 25
M  V30 26 2 28 26
M  V30 27 1 25 29
M  V30 28 1 26 27
M  V30 29 2 29 30
M  V30 30 1 30 28
M  V30 31 2 33 31
M  V30 32 2 34 32
M  V30 33 1 31 35
M  V30 34 1 32 33
M  V30 35 2 35 36
M  V30 36 1 36 34
M  V30 37 1 8 5
M  V30 38 1 14 19
M  V30 39 1 27 36
M  V30 40 10 10 37
M  V30 41 10 6 37
M  V30 42 10 37 35
M  V30 43 10 25 37
M  V30 44 10 21 37
M  V30 45 10 15 37
M  V30 END BOND
M  V30 END CTAB
M  END
</chemform><chemform smiles="C1C=CC2[Ir]3(N4=C(C5C=CC=CN=53)C=CC=C4)3(N4C=CC=CC=4C4C3=CC=CC=4)N3C=CC=CC=3C=2C=1" isreaction="" inchi="1S/2C11H9N.C10H8N2.Ir/c2*1-2-6-10(7-3-1)11-8-4-5-9-12-11;1-3-7-11-9(5-1)10-6-2-4-8-12-10;/h2*1-9H;1-8H;" inchikey="IYTMYQIZILOEEH-UHFFFAOYSA-N" height="200px" width="300px" float="none">
  -INDIGO-10312214132D
  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0 V3000
M  V30 BEGIN CTAB
M  V30 COUNTS 37 45 0 0 0
M  V30 BEGIN ATOM
M  V30 1 C 4.51632 -5.13936 0.0 0
M  V30 2 C 6.06627 -4.93467 0.0 0
M  V30 3 C 5.15818 -4.66778 0.0 0
M  V30 4 C 6.3022 -5.79742 0.0 0
M  V30 5 C 4.56211 -5.88143 0.0 0
M  V30 6 C 5.34928 -6.31274 0.0 0
M  V30 7 C 6.98453 -3.34073 0.0 0
M  V30 8 C 8.33934 -3.25415 0.0 0
M  V30 9 C 7.68802 -2.92624 0.0 0
M  V30 10 C 8.46503 -4.05655 0.0 0
M  V30 11 C 6.97113 -4.26477 0.0 0
M  V30 12 N 7.91082 -4.66724 0.0 0
M  V30 13 C 5.97037 -8.10016 0.0 0
M  V30 14 C 6.8765 -6.97005 0.0 0
M  V30 15 C 6.17764 -7.36012 0.0 0
M  V30 16 C 7.29425 -7.20209 0.0 0
M  V30 17 C 6.58715 -8.72328 0.0 0
M  V30 18 C 7.38575 -8.30707 0.0 0
M  V30 19 C 7.97618 -8.6897 0.0 0
M  V30 20 C 9.56853 -8.63312 0.0 0
M  V30 21 N 8.73266 -8.0388 0.0 0
M  V30 22 C 9.49195 -9.6368 0.0 0
M  V30 23 C 8.03916 -9.63547 0.0 0
M  V30 24 C 8.75049 -10.0588 0.0 0
M  V30 25 N 9.63626 -6.58079 0.0 0
M  V30 26 C 11.4047 -6.3059 0.0 0
M  V30 27 C 10.452 -5.87897 0.0 0
M  V30 28 C 11.4207 -7.15882 0.0 0
M  V30 29 C 9.74784 -7.24169 0.0 0
M  V30 30 C 10.6478 -7.60377 0.0 0
M  V30 31 C 9.56317 -3.81633 0.0 0
M  V30 32 C 11.3087 -3.89914 0.0 0
M  V30 33 C 10.5397 -3.3974 0.0 0
M  V30 34 C 11.2289 -4.69804 0.0 0
M  V30 35 N 9.4911 -4.82936 0.0 0
M  V30 36 C 10.5094 -5.23649 0.0 0
M  V30 37 Ir 8.21377 -6.11105 0.0 0
M  V30 END ATOM
M  V30 BEGIN BOND
M  V30 1 2 3 1
M  V30 2 2 4 2
M  V30 3 1 1 5
M  V30 4 1 2 3
M  V30 5 2 5 6
M  V30 6 1 6 4
M  V30 7 2 9 7
M  V30 8 2 10 8
M  V30 9 1 7 11
M  V30 10 1 8 9
M  V30 11 2 11 12
M  V30 12 1 12 10
M  V30 13 2 15 13
M  V30 14 2 16 14
M  V30 15 1 13 17
M  V30 16 1 14 15
M  V30 17 2 17 18
M  V30 18 1 18 16
M  V30 19 2 21 19
M  V30 20 2 22 20
M  V30 21 1 19 23
M  V30 22 1 20 21
M  V30 23 2 23 24
M  V30 24 1 24 22
M  V30 25 2 27 25
M  V30 26 2 28 26
M  V30 27 1 25 29
M  V30 28 1 26 27
M  V30 29 2 29 30
M  V30 30 1 30 28
M  V30 31 2 33 31
M  V30 32 2 34 32
M  V30 33 1 31 35
M  V30 34 1 32 33
M  V30 35 2 35 36
M  V30 36 1 36 34
M  V30 37 1 2 11
M  V30 38 1 36 27
M  V30 39 1 19 18
M  V30 40 10 37 12
M  V30 41 10 37 4
M  V30 42 10 37 16
M  V30 43 10 37 21
M  V30 44 10 37 25
M  V30 45 10 37 35
M  V30 END BOND
M  V30 END CTAB
M  END
</chemform><chemform smiles="C1C2P~[Re](C#O)(C#O)~PC3C=CC(P~[Re](C#O)(C#O)~PC4C=CC(P~[Re](C#O)(C#O)~PC(C=1)=CC=2)=CC=4)=CC=3" inchi="1S/3C6H8P2.6CO.3Re/c3*7-5-1-2-6(8)4-3-5;6*1-2;;;/h3*1-4H,7-8H2;;;;;;;;;" inchikey="YGWAVCYEYZMOLM-UHFFFAOYSA-N" height="200px" width="300px" float="none">
  -INDIGO-09022208302D
  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0 V3000
M  V30 BEGIN CTAB
M  V30 COUNTS 39 42 0 0 0
M  V30 BEGIN ATOM
M  V30 1 C 12.085 -2.83481 0.0 0
M  V30 2 C 12.0855 -4.56511 0.0 0
M  V30 3 C 12.5851 -3.7016 0.0 0
M  V30 4 C 11.0846 -4.56511 0.0 0
M  V30 5 C 11.0801 -2.83481 0.0 0
M  V30 6 C 10.5851 -3.70378 0.0 0
M  V30 7 C 7.76004 -2.75981 0.0 0
M  V30 8 C 7.76052 -4.49011 0.0 0
M  V30 9 C 8.26015 -3.6266 0.0 0
M  V30 10 C 6.75958 -4.49011 0.0 0
M  V30 11 C 6.75509 -2.75981 0.0 0
M  V30 12 C 6.26008 -3.62878 0.0 0
M  V30 13 C 9.91004 -6.55981 0.0 0
M  V30 14 C 9.91052 -8.29011 0.0 0
M  V30 15 C 10.4101 -7.4266 0.0 0
M  V30 16 C 8.90958 -8.29011 0.0 0
M  V30 17 C 8.90509 -6.55981 0.0 0
M  V30 18 C 8.41008 -7.42878 0.0 0
M  V30 19 P 8.26004 -1.89378 0.0 0
M  V30 20 P 6.25958 -5.35614 0.0 0
M  V30 21 P 7.41008 -7.42878 0.0 0
M  V30 22 P 11.4101 -7.4266 0.0 0
M  V30 23 P 12.7926 -5.27222 0.0 0
M  V30 24 P 10.373 -2.1277 0.0 0
M  V30 25 Re 7.275 -6.175 0.0 0
M  V30 26 Re 12.175 -6.325 0.0 0
M  V30 27 Re 9.25 -2.175 0.0 0
M  V30 28 C 7.775 -5.30897 0.0 0
M  V30 29 C 8.275 -6.175 0.0 0
M  V30 30 O 8.75 -4.68397 0.0 0
M  V30 31 O 9.0 -5.71603 0.0 0
M  V30 32 C 11.175 -6.325 0.0 0
M  V30 33 C 11.4679 -5.61789 0.0 0
M  V30 34 O 10.7517 -5.12697 0.0 0
M  V30 35 O 10.25 -5.75897 0.0 0
M  V30 36 C 8.99118 -3.14093 0.0 0
M  V30 37 C 9.75 -3.04103 0.0 0
M  V30 38 O 9.95 -3.88205 0.0 0
M  V30 39 O 8.85026 -3.82474 0.0 0
M  V30 END ATOM
M  V30 BEGIN BOND
M  V30 1 2 3 1
M  V30 2 2 4 2
M  V30 3 1 1 5
M  V30 4 1 2 3
M  V30 5 2 5 6
M  V30 6 1 6 4
M  V30 7 2 9 7
M  V30 8 2 10 8
M  V30 9 1 7 11
M  V30 10 1 8 9
M  V30 11 2 11 12
M  V30 12 1 12 10
M  V30 13 2 15 13
M  V30 14 2 16 14
M  V30 15 1 13 17
M  V30 16 1 14 15
M  V30 17 2 17 18
M  V30 18 1 18 16
M  V30 19 1 7 19
M  V30 20 1 10 20
M  V30 21 1 18 21
M  V30 22 1 15 22
M  V30 23 1 2 23
M  V30 24 1 5 24
M  V30 25 8 25 20
M  V30 26 8 25 21
M  V30 27 8 26 22
M  V30 28 8 26 23
M  V30 29 8 27 24
M  V30 30 8 27 19
M  V30 31 1 25 28
M  V30 32 1 25 29
M  V30 33 3 28 30
M  V30 34 3 29 31
M  V30 35 1 26 32
M  V30 36 1 26 33
M  V30 37 3 33 34
M  V30 38 3 32 35
M  V30 39 1 27 36
M  V30 40 1 27 37
M  V30 41 3 37 38
M  V30 42 3 36 39
M  V30 END BOND
M  V30 END CTAB
M  END
</chemform><chemform smiles="C(C)1C=CN2[Ru]3(N4C(C5C=C(C)C=CN=53)=CC(C)=CC=4)3(N4C=CC(C)=CC=4C4C=C(C)C=CN=43)N3C(C=2C=1)=CC(C)=CC=3" inchi="1S/3C12H12N2.Ru/c3*1-9-3-5-13-11(7-9)12-8-10(2)4-6-14-12;/h3*3-8H,1-2H3;" inchikey="OHMPMLYBTPIVII-UHFFFAOYSA-N" height="200px" width="300px" float="none">
  -INDIGO-10312214132D
  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0  0 V3000
M  V30 BEGIN CTAB
M  V30 COUNTS 43 51 0 0 0
M  V30 BEGIN ATOM
M  V30 1 C 5.01466 -5.20417 0.0 0
M  V30 2 C 6.56403 -5.24219 0.0 0
M  V30 3 C 5.71317 -4.85016 0.0 0
M  V30 4 N 6.73054 -6.11129 0.0 0
M  V30 5 C 4.97704 -6.02046 0.0 0
M  V30 6 C 5.78221 -6.56146 0.0 0
M  V30 7 C 6.773 -3.36151 0.0 0
M  V30 8 C 8.31965 -3.59331 0.0 0
M  V30 9 C 7.49902 -3.01375 0.0 0
M  V30 10 N 8.0062 -4.75117 0.0 0
M  V30 11 C 6.68588 -4.06553 0.0 0
M  V30 12 C 7.08719 -4.69342 0.0 0
M  V30 13 C 10.1272 -4.78074 0.0 0
M  V30 14 C 11.6303 -4.769 0.0 0
M  V30 15 C 10.9452 -4.39522 0.0 0
M  V30 16 C 11.688 -5.49356 0.0 0
M  V30 17 N 10.0129 -5.56831 0.0 0
M  V30 18 C 11.0114 -5.95961 0.0 0
M  V30 19 N 10.3176 -7.08232 0.0 0
M  V30 20 C 12.004 -6.86372 0.0 0
M  V30 21 C 11.1318 -6.51904 0.0 0
M  V30 22 C 12.089 -7.61046 0.0 0
M  V30 23 C 10.5938 -7.78507 0.0 0
M  V30 24 C 11.4424 -8.05688 0.0 0
M  V30 25 C 5.74948 -8.4304 0.0 0
M  V30 26 C 7.24567 -8.61399 0.0 0
M  V30 27 N 6.88111 -7.98991 0.0 0
M  V30 28 C 7.0013 -9.43099 0.0 0
M  V30 29 C 5.72232 -9.40945 0.0 0
M  V30 30 C 6.40116 -9.78422 0.0 0
M  V30 31 C 7.86756 -8.6635 0.0 0
M  V30 32 C 9.33463 -8.4217 0.0 0
M  V30 33 N 8.61181 -7.9578 0.0 0
M  V30 34 C 9.30087 -9.30733 0.0 0
M  V30 35 C 8.01551 -9.38801 0.0 0
M  V30 36 C 8.658 -9.70378 0.0 0
M  V30 37 C 4.07084 -4.59026 0.0 0
M  V30 38 C 5.8705 -2.68995 0.0 0
M  V30 39 C 12.63 -4.1397 0.0 0
M  V30 40 C 13.1636 -8.09284 0.0 0
M  V30 41 C 8.71497 -10.8107 0.0 0
M  V30 42 C 6.39913 -10.889 0.0 0
M  V30 43 Ru 8.40523 -6.55735 0.0 0
M  V30 END ATOM
M  V30 BEGIN BOND
M  V30 1 2 3 1
M  V30 2 2 4 2
M  V30 3 1 1 5
M  V30 4 1 2 3
M  V30 5 2 5 6
M  V30 6 1 6 4
M  V30 7 2 9 7
M  V30 8 2 10 8
M  V30 9 1 7 11
M  V30 10 1 8 9
M  V30 11 2 11 12
M  V30 12 1 12 10
M  V30 13 2 15 13
M  V30 14 2 16 14
M  V30 15 1 13 17
M  V30 16 1 14 15
M  V30 17 2 17 18
M  V30 18 1 18 16
M  V30 19 2 21 19
M  V30 20 2 22 20
M  V30 21 1 19 23
M  V30 22 1 20 21
M  V30 23 2 23 24
M  V30 24 1 24 22
M  V30 25 2 27 25
M  V30 26 2 28 26
M  V30 27 1 25 29
M  V30 28 1 26 27
M  V30 29 2 29 30
M  V30 30 1 30 28
M  V30 31 2 33 31
M  V30 32 2 34 32
M  V30 33 1 31 35
M  V30 34 1 32 33
M  V30 35 2 35 36
M  V30 36 1 36 34
M  V30 37 1 2 12
M  V30 38 1 18 21
M  V30 39 1 31 26
M  V30 40 1 1 37
M  V30 41 1 7 38
M  V30 42 1 14 39
M  V30 43 1 22 40
M  V30 44 1 36 41
M  V30 45 1 30 42
M  V30 46 10 4 43
M  V30 47 10 10 43
M  V30 48 10 17 43
M  V30 49 10 19 43
M  V30 50 10 33 43
M  V30 51 10 27 43
M  V30 END BOND
M  V30 END CTAB
M  END
</chemform>
photosensitizer compounds


== Experiments ==
== Experiments ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Entry
!CAT
!conc
!PS
!conc
!e-D
!conc
!Solvent
!λ<sub>ex</sub> [nm]
!irr time [h]
!Sel [%]
!TON
!QY [%]
!reference
!link to experiment
|-
|1
|{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100486}}
|
| -
|
|{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100507|link=GSEJCLTVZPLZKY-UHFFFAOYSA-N}}
|
|DMF
|400
|1
|69
|4
|
|{{#literature:|doi=10.1039/C39850000056}}
|
|-
|2
|{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100549}}
|
|{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100486|link=BZSVVCFHMVMYCR-UHFFFAOYSA-N}}
|
|{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100507|link=GSEJCLTVZPLZKY-UHFFFAOYSA-N}}
|
|DMF
|400
|2
| -
|326
|
|{{#literature:|doi=10.1016/0022-328X(90)85224-M}}
|
|-
|3
|{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100481|link=C([*])1C=CN2[Ru](C#O)(C#O)(Cl)(Cl)N3C=CC([*])=CC=3C=2C=1r1}}
|
|{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100486|link=BZSVVCFHMVMYCR-UHFFFAOYSA-N}}
|
|{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100507|link=GSEJCLTVZPLZKY-UHFFFAOYSA-N}}
|
|DMF
|400
|2
| -
|255
|
|{{#literature:|doi=10.1016/0022-328X(90)85224-M}}
|
|-
|4
|{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100482}}
|
|{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100487}}
|
|{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100507|link=GSEJCLTVZPLZKY-UHFFFAOYSA-N}}
|
|NMP
|400
|5
|78
|21
|
|{{#literature:|doi=10.1002/cctc.201500494}}
|
|-
|5
|{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100484|link=C1C2N([*])P([Ru](C#O)(C#O)(Cl)3P(N([*])C(N=23)=CC=1)(C1C=CC=CC=1)C1C=CC=CC=1)(C1C=CC=CC=1)C1C=CC=CC=1r1}}
|
|{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100486|link=BZSVVCFHMVMYCR-UHFFFAOYSA-N}}
|
|{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100507|link=GSEJCLTVZPLZKY-UHFFFAOYSA-N}}
|
|DMF
|405
|24
|99
|380
|
|{{#literature:|doi=10.1002/cssc.201901326}}
|
|-
|6
|{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100485|link=[Ru]1(N2C=CC=CC=2C2N1=CC=CC=2)([*])12C3N(C4C1=C(N1C=CN([*])C12)C=CC=4)C=CN3[*]r1r2}}
|
|{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100533}}
|
|{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100526|link=NNENGKYNKIWEEY-UHFFFAOYSA-N}}/{{#moleculelink:|chemformid=100507|link=GSEJCLTVZPLZKY-UHFFFAOYSA-N}}
|
|DMA
|500
|24
|83
|3269
|
|{{#literature:|doi=10.1002/chem.201905840}}
|
|}
table with several experiments


== Cobalt Catalysts ==
== Cobalt Catalysts ==

Revision as of 14:42, 6 September 2024

CO2 conversion to formic acid[Pro21]

Formic acid (FA) is a simple chemical with many uses. Its applications include use as a preservative, in the leather and dyeing industry and chemical providing a C1 building block. It is also an important H2 carrier, because of its qualities as non-toxic, easily storable liquid. This also makes it directly usable in fuel cells.[Fas16] The global production is currently estimated at 870.000 metric tons in 2021 with a CAGR (Compound Annual Growth Report) of 3.87% in volume terms during the period 2022-2027.[https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/formic-acid-market]

Industrial production of formic acid is done mainly by carbonylation of methanol and subsequent hydrolysation of methyl formate to formic acid.[FA00]

A direct approach of synthesis by hydrogenation of CO2 and using renewable energy, such as sunlight in photocatalysis, in a homogeneous environment, is the focus of this page.

Sacrificial electron donors

TEOA TEA BI(OH)H BIH BNAH

Ruthenium Catalysts

Ru(bpy)2CO3

Photosensitizers

Experiments

Cobalt Catalysts

100553 [Show R-Groups] Co(MePP) tBuxant-(Co(qpy))2

Organic and semiconductor photosensitizer

3,7-Di((1,1'-biphenyl)-4-yl)-10-(naphthalen-1-yl)-10H-phenoxazine 100494

Experiments

Literature

[Pro21] Photochemical reduction of carbon dioxide to formic acid. Robin Cauwenbergh, Shoubhik Das, Green Chemistry 2021, Vol. 23, Pages 2553-2574. DOI2: 10.1039/d0gc04040a
[Fas16] Formic acid synthesis using CO2 as raw material: Techno-economic and environmental evaluation and market potential. Mar Pérez-Fortes, Jan C. Schöneberger, Aikaterini Boulamanti, Gillian Harrison, Evangelos Tzimas, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2016, Vol. 41, Pages 16444-16462. DOI2: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.05.199
[FA00] Formic Acid. Werner Reutemann, Heinz Kieczka, Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2000. DOI2: 10.1002/14356007.a12_013
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